A few days ago I heard a talking head on CNN or NPR speak about ill-prepared the Russians were for large river crossings in their was against Ukraine. So I decided to scan the FMSO monographs where I had seen a brief report on this topics just a while ago, written by Dr. Lester W. Grau.Sounds like the Russians know what they are doing. They must have left Dr. Grau's publication back in Russia. Or perhaps the talking heads had it all wrong,
I have posted his monograph below plus pasted in the first few pages, plus some graphics.
Download 2019-12-04 Russian Deliberate River Crossings (Grau)
The Russian army is primarily a regional force, intended for employment in Eurasia; consequently, its equipment is designed specifically for that environment, which includes large expanses of woodlands and tundra intersected by broad rivers and massive swamps. Large rivers, canals, and lakes dominate Eurasia and have long served as major arteries of commerce and industry, defensive barriers, lines of communication, and avenues of advance. In central and eastern Europe, an advancing or withdrawing force can expect to encounter a 6-meter-wide water obstacle every 20 kilometers, up to a 100-meter-wide water obstacle every 35–60 kilometers, a 100- to 300-meterwide water obstacle every 100–150 kilometers, and a water obstacle more than 300 meters wide every 250–300 kilometers. Consequently, most vehicles used by Russian ground forces have some amphibious capability and can, at least, ford reasonable water obstacles. Troop carriers and infantry fighting vehicles are amphibious and can be propelled across the water using tracks or wheels for forward momentum.
Russian tanks can be driven across water obstacles of less than 5 meters deep and 1 kilometer wide using a snorkel to provide oxygen to the crew and engine. Weather and seasons also affect water crossing. Russia is a northern country, and severe winter weather is a normal condition for training and combat. Therefore, Russians regularly train to deal with crossings during spring and autumn flooding (with floating ice), under conditions of low water levels and high banks in summertime, and during winter freezes.
Bodies of water usually hinder and impair an attacking force but supplement the efforts of a defending force. The attacking force must suppress a ground defense force covering the crossing site and/or enemy aviation. The number and types of crossing sites depend on the nature of the water obstacle, the composition of the crossing forces, the available crossing means, and the intentions and laydown of the enemy force. The purpose of a crossing attack is to seize a lodgment on the far bank and penetrate enemy defenses. If tanks are unable to ford, they cross by submerged snorkeling or via ferries or pontoon bridges. Second-echelon forces, artillery, support vehicles, and follow-on forces cross on ferries and on pontoon bridges.
Russians prefer to cross water obstacles from the march to avoid any major halts and massing of forces within enemy artillery range. Crossings are attempted at multiple points along a broad front in order to overwhelm enemy defenses and maintain tempo. The crossings are preferably conducted at night; however, this is difficult (and, in the case of tank snorkeling, forbidden). Particulate smoke and electronic masking are used extensively to cover assault crossings, particularly those conducted during daylight hours.
Russians train for two types of water crossings— unopposed and opposed. An unopposed (hasty) crossing is conducted against a lightly held enemy defense, and an opposed (deliberate) crossing is conducted against a prepared enemy defense.
A hasty water crossing involves the rapid crossing of forward combat forces with an accompanying air assault or an attack from the march to seize and secure a far shore bridgehead. The lead battalion pushes its main body across using amphibious vehicles with snorkels and quickly bridging or ferrying the remainder of the force to resume the offensive. Fording vehicles are more likely to be used in a hasty crossing than in a deliberate crossing because they allow the force to continue across the river without pausing to acquire other crossing means. The hasty crossing is discussed in the May– August 2018 issue of Engineer. When the enemy is defending the river with well-prepared defenses, much more force is required to overcome the defenses and a deliberate crossing is necessary.
A deliberate water crossing is conducted when an enemy has established sufficient defense to offer significant resistance to the crossing of a water obstacle. The deliberate crossing is considered the most important and complex part of an offensive action.5 It is generally conducted at a site where the enemy defense is weaker than general but still supports the overall scheme of maneuver. A deliberate crossing is normally conducted as an attack from the march. Should the initial attack fail or situations dictate, the main force may need to close on the water bank to prepare for the crossing. Should a Russian attack be stopped at the edge of the water, the deliberate crossing may be conducted by those stalled forces that are in contact or, preferably, by a follow-on force attacking from the march through the stalled Russian force (since tempo is easier to maintain than to initiate). Artillery support is essential for a deliberate crossing. Where possible, artillery is moved forward, where direct fire and low-trajectory fire can be provided.
The engineer battalion that is organic to the Russian maneuver brigade has four heavy mechanized bridge layer (TMM-3) or truck-mounted scissor-bridge (TMM-6) sets for bridging up to 40 meters and a PP-61 pontoon bridge capable of carrying 60 tons on a 268-meter bridge, 90 tons on a 165-meter bridge, or 120 tons on a 141-meter bridge. It takes less than an hour to emplace a PP-61 pontoon bridge. Six BMK-255-1 cutter vessels are used to help assemble and maintain the bridge position. The vessels can also serve as tugboats, should pontoon sections be used as ferries. The battalion also has seven PTS-2 tracked amphibious transports. Additional bridging assets are available at army level. The PMM-2M tracked amphibious bridging ferry has also been introduced into some engineer battalions. It can carry 42.5 tons and can be linked with other vehicles to form a bridge. A 210-meter-long PMM-2M bridge was constructed under fire across the Euphrates River in Syria in 2017. The bridge remained in position until February 2018, when it was dismantled by spring flooding.
The steps in conducting a deliberate river crossing are—
Step 1. Destroy the defending enemy, which is facing the water obstacle.
Step 2. Approach the water obstacle, and seize the crossing or far bridgehead by air assault and/or vehicle fording attack.
Step 3. Cross the main body using table of organization and equipment (TO&E) systems, and develop the offensive on the far shore.
Step 4. In the event that the offensive begins on the near shore, cross under cover of artillery and aviation support to break through the enemy defenses and develop the offensive into the depth and flanks of the enemy.
Coordinating a deliberate crossing requires—
■■ Choreography of artillery preparation and supporting fire
■■ Aviation strikes.
■■ Air assaults (to seize the far bank).
■■ An attack, from the march, that puts the first-echelon infantry fighting vehicles and/or personnel carriers on line shortly before reaching the near bank so that they can cross simultaneously.
■■ A separate tank crossing conducted by snorkeling or crossing on a pontoon bridge or on ferries.
■■ A camouflage and deception effort.
■■ A bridging effort.
■■ The development and continuation of the advance on the far shore.
The bridging effort requires—
■■ Engineer reconnaissance support.
■■ Crossing sites.
■■ Route selection.
■■ Construction.
■■ Traffic control.
■■ Vehicle and casualty evacuation.
■■ Mine clearing.
■■ Camouflage.
■■ The continuation of the attack (and the next water obstacle).
The goal of river crossing is to maintain the tempo of the attack—not to stall on the near or far bank. Air defense assets are positioned forward to provide cover for hasty and deliberate crossings to prevent aerial interdiction of vehicles on or in the river, where they are most vulnerable. The initial attack is conducted by air assault and/or motorized rifle forces crossing the water with wheeled infantry personnel carriers (similar to the Stryker) or tracked infantry fighting vehicles (similar to the Bradley) firing onboard weapons as they cross. Air support during the crossing of a water obstacle often varies from the standard Russian airborne and air assault pattern. Russian airborne and air assault forces are 100 percent mechanized, and infantry carriers, artillery, and support vehicles accompany the assault. The airborne or air assault force usually drops some distance from the objective, assembles, mounts its vehicles, and conducts a march and mounted attack against the objective. This may not be possible in a company or battalion size parachute drop or air assault, and many vehicles may need to join the force later. Consequently, the main force should cross and link up with the company or battalion size air assault force within 2 hours of insertion.
Read on!
Enjoy!
“A deliberate water crossing is conducted when an enemy has established sufficient defense to offer significant resistance to the crossing of a water obstacle.” - Dr. Lester W. Grau