WaterWired

CRS Report: 'Injection and Geologic Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide - Federal Role and Issues for Congress'

Angela C. Jones authored this CRS report (24 January 2020): Injection and Geologic Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide: Federal Role and Issues for Congress.

Click on the graphics to enlarge them.

Download CRS_Report_CO2_Sequestration_Fed_Role_24Jan2020

Summary
For several decades the federal government has funded efforts to explore the feasibility of mitigating the release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) while burning fossil fuels as a source of energy. Carbon capture and storage (CCS)—the process of capturing manmade carbon dioxide (CO2) at its source, such as a coal-fired power plant, and storing it before its release into the atmosphere—has been proposed as a technological solution for mitigating emissions into the atmosphere while continuing to use fossil energy. Underground carbon storage, known as geologic sequestration, is the long-term containment of a fluid (including gas or liquid CO2 in subsurface geologic formations). Long-term storage of CO2 can also occur incidentally through enhanced oil recovery (EOR), a process of injecting CO2 into an oil or gas reservoir that can significantly increase the amount of oil or gas produced.

Figure 1. The CCS Process

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) leads the federal government’s carbon storage research and development (R&D) as part of the agency’s fossil energy programs. The agency conducts research on geologic sequestration and EOR, and carries out the Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships (RCSP) program—a set of public-private partnerships across the United States to deploy testing and development of CO2 injection and storage. To date in the United States, nine projects have injected large volumes of CO2 into underground formations as demonstrations of potential commercial-scale storage. Four of these projects are actively injecting and storing CO2—one in an underground saline reservoir to demonstrate geologic sequestration and three in oil and gas reservoirs as part of EOR. Currently, while numerous large-scale storage R&D projects are ongoing in the United States, none of the projects injecting CO2 solely for geologic sequestration are operating in a commercial capacity.

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), provides authorities for regulating underground injection of fluids and serves as the framework for regulation of geologic sequestration of CO2 and EOR. The major purpose of the act’s Underground Injection Control (UIC) provisions is to prevent endangerment of underground sources of drinking water from injection activities. EPA has promulgated regulations and established minimum federal requirements for six classes of injection wells. In 2010, EPA promulgated regulations for the underground injection of CO2 for long-term storage and established UIC Class VI, a new class of wells solely for geologic sequestration of CO2. The well performance standards and other requirements established in the Class VI rule are based on the distinctive features of CO2 injection compared to other types of injection. Two Class VI wells, both in Illinois, are currently permitted by EPA in the United States. No state has issued a permit for a Class VI well. CO2 injection for EOR is conducted using Class II wells (associated with oil and gas production). SDWA also authorizes states to administer UIC programs in lieu of EPA, known as primacy. For Class VI CO2 geologic sequestration wells, only North Dakota has primacy. Most oil and gas producing states have primacy for Class II wells and regulate these wells under their own state programs.

Congress has supported carbon storage via underground injection through recent legislation directing DOE to expand R&D activity and increasing the federal tax credit for underground carbon storage. A policy challenge that Congress may face with underground carbon storage is balancing protection of underground sources of drinking water with supporting and encouraging the development of cost-effective CCS technology. If Congress were to explore future policy in this area, Members may consider the potential health and environmental risks (beyond any related risks to underground sources of drinking water) not addressed by SDWA. Other issues for Congress include unresolved liability and property rights issues, overall CCS project cost, public acceptance of these sequestration projects and participation in their planning, and the relationship of the growth of underground carbon storage with continuing to burn fossil fuels for generating electricity.

Very good concise overview of a complicated, controversial topic.

Enjoy!

"Young person worry: What if nothing I do matters? Old person worry: What if everything I do does?" - Jenny Offill (quoted in @NYMag via @TheWeek)

Paper: 'Geological Heterogeneity of Coastal Unconsolidated Groundwater Systems Worldwide and Its Influence on Offshore Fresh Groundwater Occurrence'

This is a fascinating open-access paper sent to me by Michael van der Valk at the Dutch Hydrology Portal: Geological Heterogeneity of Coastal Unconsolidated Groundwater Systems Worldwide and Its Influence on Offshore Fresh Groundwater Occurrence, by Daniel Zamrsky, Maria E. Karssenberg Kim M. Cohen, Marc F. P. Bierkens, and Gualbert H. P. Oude Essink. Front. Earth Sci., 15 January 2020 https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2019.00339

Here is a PDF (but click on the title above to access the hot links in the article and the references):

Download Feart-07-00339

Abstract
Numerous coastal areas worldwide already experience fresh water shortages due to overexploitation and salt water intrusion. Future climate change and population growth will further intensify this threat in more areas in coming decades. Therefore, it is necessary to explore any potential fresh water source, such as offshore fresh groundwater, that could alleviate this fresh water shortage and provide valuable time for adaptation measures implementation and changes in water management strategies. Recent evidence suggests that a disproportionally large portion of human population living in coastal areas relies on groundwater resources stored in underlying unconsolidated groundwater systems. These systems are often very heterogeneous, combining numerous high permeability aquifers interlaid with low permeability aquitards with varying total thickness. This heterogeneity is a major control on the fresh groundwater volume and groundwater salinity distribution within such systems. Thus, the quantification of geological heterogeneity is often the limiting factor when estimating fresh groundwater volumes, both inland and offshore, along the global coastline. To overcome this obstacle, we combine conceptual geological models with available state-of-the-art global datasets to derive a set of geological heterogeneity parameter distributions quantifying geological heterogeneity of coastal unconsolidated groundwater systems (CUGSs) as formed over last 1 Ma. These are then used in an algorithm designed to build synthetic heterogenic parameterizations of CUGSs along the global coastline. These, in turn, provide key input for modeling variable-density groundwater flow and coupled salt transport to analyze changes in groundwater salinities and offshore fresh groundwater volume (OFGV). Such an analysis is performed over one full glacial–interglacial cycle (the last 0.13 Ma) to account for oscillating sea-level conditions and shifts in coast-line positions and salinity incursions. Our simulation results show a close match between the modeling scenarios and values presented by literature sources demonstrating the potential of the hereby presented methodology to be applied in similar future studies.

Summary and Conclusion
The need for a better understanding and definition of heterogeneous coastal hydrogeology at the global scale is addressed in this study by combining various conceptual geological models with state-of-the-art freely available global datasets. The combination of these is used as input into the global geological heterogeneity algorithm. Even though only three geological parameters are explicitly quantified (another four need to be randomized), we show that adequate information is provided to create synthetic heterogenic CUGSs.

These synthetic heterogenic CUGSs are used as input to SEAWAT models (using the SEAWAT code), simulating variable-density groundwater flow and coupled salt transport. The SEAWAT models estimate FGFs and OFGVs over the past glacial–interglacial cycle and extending to the near future. Thus, we are able to estimate the magnitude and future decrease of OFGVs in seven selected COSCAT regions. Comparing the estimated OFGVs with literature values for the selected COSCAT regions shows a potential for expanding the hereby presented methodology to the rest of coastal COSCAT regions worldwide (being 127 in number). By extending our approach to the global coastline, thus we would gain valuable insights into current and near future OFGV occurrence and magnitude in CUGSs. The analysis of the influence of geological settings on OFGVs shows that the presence and thickness of an offshore low permeable (e.g., clay) layer overtopping the more permeable offshore aquifers has the highest positive influence on simulated OFGV. Therefore, the focus of the geological data collection should not be limited to the inland areas but should also include as many offshore locations as possible.

Four geological parameters could not be quantified within the scope of this study. To overcome this, two different modeling concepts were designed to randomize the values of these geological parameters for seven selected COSCAT regions (= nine ARPs). The first modeling concept only takes into account the extreme values of the geological heterogeneity parameter values (PE) resulting in 24 SEAWAT models in total. The second modeling concept is based on a randomized MC randomization of the geological heterogeneity parameter values and amounts to 100 SEAWAT models. The average groundwater salinity profiles calculated by these two modeling concepts showed to yield very similar results. This means that using the PE-method to estimate averaged regional OFGVs results in a 75% reduction in total SEAWAT model runtimes, while maintaining the same degree of confidence in the model outcome as when conducting a full MC simulation. This is an important implication for future global and large regional modeling studies dealing with missing geological information on such large scales. Collecting local coastal geological data (e.g., borehole datasets) and implementing these into the conceptual geological model would be a logical next step in clearing the path to a better understanding and quantification of global hydrogeological heterogeneity, leading to improved water management strategies and decision making. The hereby presented new dataset and methods can be applied on a regional scale (tens to hundreds of kilometers) to investigate the effects of geological heterogeneity in coastal unconsolidated systems on OFGVs presence and to quantify their magnitude.

 Supplementary material can be found here.

Here are some other articles about offshore aquifers by Renee Martin-Nagle and others: June 2015 and October 2015.

Time to tune up those drill rigs!

Enjoy!

"Science gathers knowledge faster than society gathers wisdom." - Isaac Asimov

The Time Has Come: Global Groundwater Sustainability - A Call to Action

If you are a groundwater junkie or something similar and you've been living under a rock, you probably have not heard of the Global Groundwater Sustainability: A Call to Action initiative that has arisen from the recent AGU Chapman Conference in Valencia, Spain, 21-24 October 2019: Quest for Sustainability of Heavily Stressed Aquifers at Regional to Global Scales.

Here is a letter that Tom Gleeson, one of the leadership team members (along with Karen Villholth, Richard Taylor, Deb Perrone, Jay Famiglietti, David Hyndman, Anne van Loon and Yoshi Wada), sent me to see if I would distribute it. Glad to!  

Dear Colleagues,

I am excited about a new initiative called "Global Groundwater Sustainability: A Call to Action" that was first drafted at the recent Chapman conference in Valencia, Spain.  Overall, we are a global group of scientists calling for action to ensure groundwater benefits society now and into the future, and hope that you would like to join us by signing.

You can see the statement, list of signatories and sign yourself on www.groundwaterstatement.org. We already have over 80 signatures from ~20 countries [Note: now the numbers are 166 and 48] with representatives from the major international groundwater organizations (IAH, NGWA, IGRAC, IWMI etc.) and leading academics and practitioners.  We are preparing for press releases in December so if you are interested please sign and distribute in a timely fashion.  We humbly recognize that many of you, influential actors in the science and policy of groundwater sustainability, were not able to be present for the drafting of the above statement but we hope that you will support this initiative since we recognize the importance of needing to act as a group of groundwater scientists and practitioners including diverse voices from across the world. 

If you would like to spread the word, please 1) share widely by email to your personal networks of scientists, practitioners and experts in groundwater and related fields; 2) share on social media using #groundwaterstatement and link to webpage; and 3) write about it on blogs or newsletters (see waterunderground post). If you have any questions, concerns or ideas on how to spread the word, please contact Tom Gleeson tgleeson@uvic.ca.

We apologize for cross-posting but hope you are interested in joining this important initiative.

Warmly, Tom Gleeson

Here is a PDF of the statement:

Download Global_Groundwater_Sustainability

The approach appears not to be one of 'doctrinaire' sustainability but recognizes that there are places whose growth and survival have been predicated upon 'unsustainable' use of groundwater. We cannot just cut off those places. I know of some places where I have urged the locals to practice MAD (Managed Aquifer Depletion): 

Download MAD_article

The conference attendees were likely heavy on the scientific/engineering aspects of groundwater so some important disciplines (sociology, planning, ethics, economics, policy, management, etc.) were likely absent when the statement was crafted. Those folks will need to be engaged so that's why it will be important to bring them on board. 

The organizers speak of convening a Global Groundwater Summit in 2022. I hope they propose to present sessions at conferences other than all-groundwater ones. Those of us in groundwater know the story; we need to get the word out to others. I would suggest trying to organize sessions at the 2021 9th World Water Forum in Dakar and at the Stockholm World Water Week (I think the SIWI organizers now recognize groundwater).

It reminded me of the ill-fated Groundwater Visibility Initiative (GVI) the AWRA and NGWA conjured in 2016. Here's my PPT:

Download Campana_session10_awra_15nov2016

I proposed a session on the GVI for the 2018 World Water Forum in Brasilia but that request went nowhere. We had neither the gravitas nor the 'horsepower' behind it, unlike the current initiative, which is like the GVI on steroids!

Am I bothered/bitter that the GVI went nowhere? No way - glad to see the current one take off, with a lot greater chance for success. Besides, I get to recycle some old material.

Enjoy!    

“If surface water can be compared with interest income, and non-renewable groundwater with capital, then much of the West was living mainly on interest income. California was milking interest and capital in about equal proportion. The plains states, however, were devouring capital as a gang of spendthrift heirs might squander a great capitalist's fortune.” – Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert, p. 457

M. Gibson and M. Campana AWRA MAR Presentations: 1) 'Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis and System Dynamics Model...Yakima Basin' 2) Harvesting Glacial Meltwater...with MAR'

1) M. Gibson and M. Campana. Abstract: page 11

Download 2019 AC Abstracts_FINAL

PDF (36 MB) of PPT: Download AWRA_SLC_GIBSON

2) M. Campana and M. Gibson  Abstract: page 14

Download 2019 AC Abstracts_FINAL

PDF of PPT: (14 MB) Download AWRA_SLC_CAMPANA

Download AWRA_SLC_CAMPANA

Enjoy! We did!

"The science of hydrology would be relatively simple if water were unable to penetrate below the earth's surface." - Harold E. Thomas (via groundwater geek)

Paper: 'Global Groundwater Sustainability, Resources and Systems in the Anthropocene'

Great review paper submitted to Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences by Tom Gleeson, Mark Cuthbert, Grant Ferguson and Debra Perrone:
Global Groundwater Sustainability, Resources and Systems in the Anthropocene

Since this has been posted in a few places, co-author Grant Ferguson said it would be okay to publish it here. Tom Gleeson is listed as the corresponding author so address your comments to him.  

Download Gleeson review 15July19

Abstract (with three key points)
Groundwater is a crucial resource for current and future generations but is not being sustainably used in many parts of the world. The objective of this review is to provide a clear portrait of global-scale groundwater sustainability, systems and resources in the Anthropocene, in order to inspire a pivot towards more sustainable pathways. We examine groundwater from three different but related perspectives of sustainability science, natural resource governance and management, and Earth Systems science. We propose that groundwater sustainability can be defined with a direct link with observable data, governance and management as well as the crucial functions and services of groundwater. An Earth System approach highlights the connections between groundwater and the rest of the hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere, and how these connections are impacting, or impacted by, groundwater pumping. Regional differences in priorities, hydrology, politics, culture and economic contexts mean that different governance and management tools are important. But a global perspective can support higher level international policies in an increasingly globalised world, that require broader analysis of interconnections between regions and knowledge transfer between regions. 

1. Groundwater is depleted or contaminated in some regions and ubiquitously distributed which, importantly, makes it broadly accessible, but also slow and invisible and therefore challenging to govern and manage.

2. Groundwater is the largest store of unfrozen freshwater on Earth and is heterogeneously connected to a number of Earth System processes on different timescales.

3. A coherent overarching framework of groundwater sustainability is more important for groundwater governance and management than the concepts of safe yield, renewability, depletion or stress.

More...three sidebars......

Figures....

Summary Points:

1. Groundwater is a crucial resource for current and future generations but is not being sustainably used in many parts of the world.

2. Groundwater is distributed, slow and invisible which make it accessible to rural or disadvantaged communities but challenging to govern and manage. Groundwater governance is often fragmented, with vast differences amongst regions and their management priorities.

3. Sustainability can be simply and operationally defined with a direct link with observable data (water levels, flows or quality), groundwater governance and management and groundwater functions and services.

4. A coherent overarching framework of groundwater sustainability is more important for groundwater management, policy and governance than the concepts of safe yield, renewability, depletion or stress.

5. Groundwater is the largest store of freshwater on Earth and is heterogeneously connected to a number of Earth System processes on different timescales.

6. An Earth System approach highlights the connections between groundwater and rest of hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere, and how these connections are impacted by groundwater pumping.

7. Regional differences in priorities, hydrology, politics, culture and economic conditions mean that different governance and management tools are appropriate and effective in different regions while a global perspective allows prioritization of regions or knowledge transfer between regions.

    

Future Issues:

1. Groundwater quality: Data synthesis, analysis and modeling of patterns, time and space scales, drivers of global groundwater quality and integrating groundwater quality and quantity is needed, including point source, non-point source and novel pollutants.

2. Groundwater sustainability simulators and decision-support tools: We need to develop a holistic quantitative analysis and modeling framework that is useful for interdisciplinary groundwater sustainability goals . This framework may include elements or linkages of agent-based models (Castilla-Rho et al., 2017), hydrologic models of coupled groundwater-surface-atmosphere (de Graaf et al., 2017), economic models (Kahil et al., 2018), land use models as well as an accessible user-interface for water managers to run scenarios and trade-off analysis.

3. Groundwater sustainability as Grand Challenge and exemplar of Earth System sustainability: Can groundwater sustainability be a ‘Grand Challenge’ for science and policy (Fogg & LaBolle, 2006)? Or more broadly, can groundwater sustainability be an exemplar for Earth sustainability and resilience since groundwater like other parts of the Earth System have a wide range of residence times, distributed resource, complex and heterogeneous management and governance?

4. Groundwater in global sustainability frameworks: The role and importance of groundwater in the UN Sustainable Development Goals as well as the planetary boundaries needs clarifying and resolving in order to work towards defining a safe and sustainable operating space for groundwater. This research may integrate the role of groundwater in environmental flows (T. Gleeson & Richter, 2018) and/or ecosystem services (Griebler & Avramov, 2015).

5. Groundwater and resilience: the resilience of socio-ecological systems such as groundwater in irrigated agricultural watersheds is under-researched and appreciated. Applying a resilience lens to groundwater could involve resilience across different time scales (see https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/549873v1).

6. Law of the Hidden Sea or groundwater in the global commons: Although subsurface rights are defined in many regions, exploring a global ethical framework for a ‘Law of the Hidden Sea’ or more generally how, or if, groundwater should be considered part of the global commons could be fruitful (Lopez-Gunn & Jarvis, 2009).

7. Groundwater and the good Anthropocene: emphasizing hopeful elements of existing practice offers the opportunity to motivate, accelerate and define well-articulated pathways toward a more positive future. We need to define groundwater-related 'seeds of good Anthropocene' (Bennett et al. 2016) 

8. Global groundwater governance: Groundwater governance to date has always been at local to national scales except for transboundary aquifers and the European Union groundwater directive and groundwater framework directive (European Union, 2000). Exploring some of the benefits and possibilities of international cooperation in groundwater governance (Hoekstra, 2017) or global groundwater governance as has been discussed for water more broadly (Gupta and Pahl-Wostl, 2013) could be useful. 

Enjoy!

“Earth provides enough to satisfy every human’s needs, but not every human’s greed.” - Mahatma Gandhi